Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters) ›› 2025, Vol. 38 ›› Issue (7): 1069-1082.DOI: 10.1007/s40195-025-01858-6
Dongchao Li1, Fen Zhang1,3(
), Lanyue Cui1, Yueling Guo2(), Rongchang Zeng1()
Received:2025-01-12
Revised:2025-02-05
Accepted:2025-02-21
Online:2025-07-10
Published:2025-04-16
Contact:
Yueling Guo, y.guo@bit.edu.cn;Rongchang Zeng, rczeng@foxmail.com
About author:Fen Zhang, zhangfen2011@hotmail.com
Dongchao Li, Fen Zhang, Lanyue Cui, Yueling Guo, Rongchang Zeng. Accelerated Corrosion Rate of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of AZ91D Magnesium Alloy: The Formation of Nano-scaled AlMn Phase[J]. Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters), 2025, 38(7): 1069-1082.
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| Peak current (A) | Peak time (%) | Base value current (%) | Frequency (Hz) | Scanning speed (mm/min) | Wire feed speed (cm/min) | Floor height (mm) | Avg. voltage (V) | High degree (mm) | Real high (mm) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 160 | 30 | 30 | 2.4 | 240-288 | 180-200 | 2.5 | 21-22 | 30 | 28-33 |
Table 1 Process parameters for WAAM deposition of AZ91D
| Peak current (A) | Peak time (%) | Base value current (%) | Frequency (Hz) | Scanning speed (mm/min) | Wire feed speed (cm/min) | Floor height (mm) | Avg. voltage (V) | High degree (mm) | Real high (mm) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 160 | 30 | 30 | 2.4 | 240-288 | 180-200 | 2.5 | 21-22 | 30 | 28-33 |
Fig. 1 a-f OM morphologies of WAAM AZ91D samples at characteristic deposition zones, g interfacial transition zone between WAAM-deposited layers and cast base, h OM morphology of cast AZ91D, and i macroscopic schematic of WAAM AZ91D samples
Fig. 2 a EBSD grain orientation maps and IPF for the cast AZ91D a1, WAAM AZ91D in the normal direction-through thickness (ND-TT) direction a2, and WAAM AZ91D in the travel direction-through thickness (TD-TT) direction a3; b image quality mappings for the cast AZ91D b1, WAAM AZ91D in the ND-TT direction b2, and WAAM AZ91D in the TD-TT direction b3
Fig. 3 a SEM and EDS images of WAAM AZ91D, b STEM image of the Al-Mn phase in WAAM AZ91D, c SEM image of cast AZ91D, and d XRD patterns of both WAAM AZ91D and cast AZ91D
Fig. 4 a STEM and EDS images of WAAM AZ91D, b enlarged STEM image and corresponding EDS analysis highlighting the distribution of nano-sized Al-Mn phases along dislocations; c STEM image of a nanometer-sized Al-Mn phase within the matrix
Fig. 5 a Open circuit potential (OCP) versus immersion time, and b polarization curves for WAAM AZ91D and cast AZ91D in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution for 60 min
Fig. 6 EIS (Nyquist and Bode) curves of a-c cast AZ91D and d-f WAAM AZ91D immersed in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution for various durations
Fig. 7 a Equivalent electric circuits (ECs) for simulating corrosion behavior of cast AZ91D and WAAM AZ91D immersed in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution at varied durations and b evolution of the overall impedance over 24 h immersion
| Sample | Immersion time (h) | Rs (Ω cm2) | CPE (μΩ−1 cm−2 Sn) | n1 | Rf (Ω cm2) | CPE1 (μΩ−1 cm−2 Sn) | n2 | Rct (Ω cm2) | RL (kΩ cm2) | L (H cm2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WAAM AZ91D | 0 | 33.23 | 6.38 × 10−6 | 0.98 | 578.5 | 3.612 × 10−4 | 0.26 | 1383 | 1.411 × 103 | 122.9 |
| 3 | 11.04 | 8.272 × 10−6 | 0.93 | 884.2 | 6.497 × 10−4 | 0.23 | 2931 | 816.1 | 96.91 | |
| 6 | 11.4 | 1.219 × 10−5 | 0.90 | 334.9 | 5.816 × 10−4 | 0.30 | 723.7 | 740.9 | 68.87 | |
| 12 | 8.76 | 7.691 × 10−6 | 0.94 | 586.7 | 3.157 × 10−5 | 0.91 | 306.2 | 9.296 × 103 | 159.6 | |
| 24 | 11.53 | 7.621 × 10−6 | 0.94 | 593.2 | 4.211 × 10−4 | 0.96 | 1831 | 778.8 | 141.0 | |
| Cast AZ91D | 0 | 35.42 | 7.195 × 10−6 | 0.97 | 790.5 | 4.052 × 10−5 | 0.72 | 666.6 | 54.06 | 249.3 |
| 3 | 16.29 | 8.498 × 10−6 | 0.94 | 1245 | 8.729 × 10−5 | 0.80 | 515 | 66.43 | 199.1 | |
| 6 | 9.31 | 8.644 × 10−6 | 0.93 | 2438 | 1.055 × 10−4 | 0.67 | 1186 | 128.0 | 455.5 | |
| 12 | 17.21 | 7.904 × 10−6 | 0.95 | 1239 | 2.780 × 10−5 | 0.87 | 827.3 | 181.8 | 871.9 | |
| 24 | 8.5 | 8.250 × 10−6 | 0.94 | 1133 | 1.824 × 10−4 | 0.57 | 1313 | 70.06 | 388.5 |
Table 2 Electrochemical data obtained from EIS fitting of WAAM AZ91D and cast AZ91D
| Sample | Immersion time (h) | Rs (Ω cm2) | CPE (μΩ−1 cm−2 Sn) | n1 | Rf (Ω cm2) | CPE1 (μΩ−1 cm−2 Sn) | n2 | Rct (Ω cm2) | RL (kΩ cm2) | L (H cm2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WAAM AZ91D | 0 | 33.23 | 6.38 × 10−6 | 0.98 | 578.5 | 3.612 × 10−4 | 0.26 | 1383 | 1.411 × 103 | 122.9 |
| 3 | 11.04 | 8.272 × 10−6 | 0.93 | 884.2 | 6.497 × 10−4 | 0.23 | 2931 | 816.1 | 96.91 | |
| 6 | 11.4 | 1.219 × 10−5 | 0.90 | 334.9 | 5.816 × 10−4 | 0.30 | 723.7 | 740.9 | 68.87 | |
| 12 | 8.76 | 7.691 × 10−6 | 0.94 | 586.7 | 3.157 × 10−5 | 0.91 | 306.2 | 9.296 × 103 | 159.6 | |
| 24 | 11.53 | 7.621 × 10−6 | 0.94 | 593.2 | 4.211 × 10−4 | 0.96 | 1831 | 778.8 | 141.0 | |
| Cast AZ91D | 0 | 35.42 | 7.195 × 10−6 | 0.97 | 790.5 | 4.052 × 10−5 | 0.72 | 666.6 | 54.06 | 249.3 |
| 3 | 16.29 | 8.498 × 10−6 | 0.94 | 1245 | 8.729 × 10−5 | 0.80 | 515 | 66.43 | 199.1 | |
| 6 | 9.31 | 8.644 × 10−6 | 0.93 | 2438 | 1.055 × 10−4 | 0.67 | 1186 | 128.0 | 455.5 | |
| 12 | 17.21 | 7.904 × 10−6 | 0.95 | 1239 | 2.780 × 10−5 | 0.87 | 827.3 | 181.8 | 871.9 | |
| 24 | 8.5 | 8.250 × 10−6 | 0.94 | 1133 | 1.824 × 10−4 | 0.57 | 1313 | 70.06 | 388.5 |
Fig. 8 FAAS a, XRD b and FTIR c plots of WAAM AZ91D and cast AZ91D immersed in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution for 24 h
Fig. 9 Corrosion morphologies of WAAM AZ91D a-c and cast AZ91D d, e after immersion in 3.5 wt% NaCl for 2 h and 6 h
Fig. 10 Digital camera photographs of the surface macroscopic morphology of cast AZ91D and WAAM AZ91D under 5 wt% NaCl neutral salt spray for 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 96 h
Fig. 11 Cross-sectional morphologies of corrosion pits in cast AZ91D a and WAAM AZ91D b after 12 and 24 h immersion in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution, and corrosion mechanism diagram of WAAM AZ91D c
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